The American crack epidemic was a surge of crack cocaine use in major cities across the United States between the early 1980s and the early 1990s. XVIDEOS inthecrack videos, free. XVideos.com - the best free porn videos on internet, 100% free.
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Crack is Wack (1986), mural by Keith Haring
The crack epidemic in the United States was a surge of crack cocaine use in major cities across the United States between the early 1980s and the early 1990s.[1] This resulted in a number of social consequences, such as increasing crime and violence in American inner city neighborhoods, as well as a resulting backlash in the form of tough on crime policies.
In 1986, the U.S. Congress passed laws that created a 100 to 1 sentencing disparity for the possession or trafficking of crack when compared to penalties for trafficking of powder cocaine,[2][3][4][5] which had been widely criticized as discriminatory against minorities, mostly blacks, who were more likely to use crack than powder cocaine.[6]
- 5Post epidemic commentary
- 6Influence on popular culture
History[edit]
'Rocks' of crack cocaine, with a ruler (marked in inches) for reference
The name 'crack' first appeared in the New York Times on November 17, 1985. Within a year more than a thousand press stories had been released about the drug. In the early 1980s, the majority of cocaine being shipped to the United States was landing in Miami, and originated in the Bahamas and Dominican Republic.[1] Soon there was a huge glut of cocaine powder in these islands, which caused the price to drop by as much as 80 percent.[1] Faced with dropping prices for their illegal product, drug dealers made a decision to convert the powder to 'crack', a solid smokeable form of cocaine, that could be sold in smaller quantities, to more people. It was cheap, simple to produce, ready to use, and highly profitable for dealers to develop.[1] As early as 1981, reports of crack were appearing in Los Angeles, Oakland, San Diego, Miami, Houston, and in the Caribbean.[1]
Initially, crack had higher purity than street powder.[7] Around 1984, powder cocaine was available on the street at an average of 55 percent purity for $100 per gram (equivalent to $241 in 2018), and crack was sold at average purity levels of 80-plus percent for the same price.[1] In some major cities, such as Los Angeles, San Francisco, New York, Philadelphia, Baltimore, Houston and Detroit, one dose of crack could be obtained for as little as $2.50 (equivalent to $6.04 in 2018).[1]
According to the 1985–1986 National Narcotics Intelligence Consumers Committee Report, crack was available in Los Angeles, New Orleans, Memphis, Philadelphia, New York City, Houston, San Diego, San Antonio, Seattle, Baltimore, Portland, Pittsburgh, Cleveland, Cincinnati, Detroit, Chicago, Minneapolis-Saint Paul, Milwaukee, St. Louis, Atlanta, Oakland, Kansas City, Miami, Newark, Boston, San Francisco, Albany, Buffalo, and Dallas.
In 1985, cocaine-related hospital emergencies rose by 12 percent, from 23,500 to 26,300. In 1986, these incidents increased 110 percent, from 26,300 to 55,200. Between 1984 and 1987, cocaine incidents increased to 94,000. By 1987, crack was reported to be available in the District of Columbia and all but four states in the United States.[1]
Some scholars have cited the crack 'epidemic' as an example of a moral panic, noting that the explosion in use and trafficking of the drug actually occurred after the media coverage of the drug as an 'epidemic'.[8]
Impact by region[edit]
In a study done by Roland Fryer, Steven Levitt and Kevin Murphy, a crack index was calculated using information on cocaine-related arrests, deaths, and drug raids, along with low birth rates and media coverage in the United States. The crack index aimed to create a proxy for the percentage of cocaine related incidents that involved crack. Crack was a virtually unknown drug until 1985. This abrupt introductory date allows for the estimation and use of the index with the knowledge that values prior to 1985 are zero.[dubious][9] This index showed that the Northeast U.S. was most affected by the crack epidemic. The U.S. cities with the highest crack index were New York, Newark and Philadelphia.
The same index used by Fryer, Levitt and Murphy[10] was then implemented in a study that investigated the impacts of crack cocaine across the United States. In cities with populations over 350,000 the instances of crack cocaine were twice as high as those in cities with a population less than 350,000. These indicators show that the use of crack cocaine was most impactful in urban areas.
States and regions with concentrated urban populations were affected at a much higher rate, while states with primarily rural populations were least affected.[citation needed] Maryland, New York and New Mexico had the highest instances of crack cocaine, while Idaho, Minnesota and Vermont had the lowest instances of crack cocaine use.[citation needed]
Crime[edit]
Between 1984 and 1989, the homicide rate for black males aged 14 to 17 more than doubled, and the homicide rate for black males aged 18 to 24 increased nearly as much. During this period, the black community also experienced a 20–100% increase in fetal death rates, low birth-weight babies, weapons arrests, and the number of children in foster care.[11] The United States remains the largest overall consumer of narcotics in the world as of 2014.[12][13]
A 2018 study found that the crack epidemic had long-run consequences for crime, contributing to the doubling of the murder rate of young black males soon after the start of the epidemic, and that the murder rate was still 70 percent higher 17 years after crack's arrival.[14] The paper estimated that eight percent of the murders in 2000 are due to the long-run effects of the emergence of crack markets, and that the elevated murder rates for young black males can explain a significant part of the gap in life expectancy between black and white males.[14]
The reasons for these increases in crime were mostly because distribution for the drug to the end-user occurred mainly in low-income inner city neighborhoods. This gave many inner-city residents the opportunity to move up the 'economic ladder' in a drug market that allowed dealers to charge a low minimum price.
Crack cocaine use and distribution became popular in cities that were in a state of social and economic chaos such as Los Angeles and Atlanta. 'As a result of the low-skill levels and minimal initial resource outlay required to sell crack, systemic violence flourished as a growing army of young, enthusiastic inner-city crack sellers attempt to defend their economic investment.'[15] Once the drug became embedded in the particular communities, the economic environment that was best suited for its survival caused further social disintegration within that city.
Sentencing disparities[edit]
In 1986, the U.S. Congress passed laws that created a 100 to 1 sentencing disparity for the possession or trafficking of crack when compared to penalties for trafficking of powder cocaine,[2][3][4][5] which had been widely criticized as discriminatory against minorities, mostly African-Americans, who were more likely to use crack than powder cocaine.[6] This 100:1 ratio had been required under federal law since 1986.[16] Persons convicted in federal court of possession of 5 grams of crack cocaine received a minimum mandatory sentence of 5 years in federal prison. On the other hand, possession of 500 grams of powder cocaine carries the same sentence.[3][4] In 2010, the Fair Sentencing Act cut the sentencing disparity to 18:1.[6]
In the year 2000, the number of incarcerated African Americans had become 26 times the amount it had been in 1983.[citation needed]
In 2012, 88% of imprisonments from crack cocaine were African American. Further, the data shows the discrepancy between lengths of sentences of crack cocaine and heroin. The majority of crack imprisonments are placed in the 10–20 year range, while the imprisonments related to heroin use or possession range from 5–10 years which has led many to question and analyze the role race plays in this disparity.[17]
Post epidemic commentary[edit]
Writer and lawyer Michelle Alexander's book The New Jim Crow: Mass Incarceration in the Age of Colorblindness argues that punitive laws against drugs like crack cocaine adopted under the Reagan Administration's War on drugs resulted in harsh social consequences, including large numbers of young black men imprisoned for long sentences, the exacerbation of drug crime despite a decrease in illegal drug use in the United States, increased police brutality against the black community resulting in injury and death for many black men, women, and children.[18]
According to Alexander, society turned into a racist criminal justice system to avoid exhibiting obvious racism. Since African Americans were the majority users of crack cocaine, it provided a platform for the government to create laws that were specific to crack. This was an effective way to imprison black people without having to do the same to white Americans. Thus, there was a discourse of African Americans and a perpetuated narrative about crack addiction that was villainous and problematic. The criminalizing of African American crack users was portrayed as dangerous and harmful to society.
Alexander writes that felony drug convictions for crack cocaine fell disproportionately on young black men, who then lost access to voting, housing, and employment opportunities. These economic setbacks led to increased violent crime in poor black communities as families did what they had to do to survive.
Alexander explains the process of someone who is caught with crack: first, the arrest and the court hearing that will result in jail or prison-time. Second, the aftermath of permanent stigmas attached to someone who has done jail-time for crack, like being marked a felon on their record. This impacts job opportunity, housing opportunity, and creates obstacles for people who are left with little motivation to follow the law, making it more likely that they will be arrested again.
Dark Alliance series[edit]
San Jose Mercury News journalist Gary Webb sparked national controversy with his 1996 Dark Alliance series which alleged that the influx of Nicaraguan cocaine started and significantly fueled the 1980s crack epidemic.[19] Investigating the lives and connections of Los Angeles crack dealers Ricky Ross, Oscar Danilo Blandón, and Norwin Meneses, Webb alleged that profits from these crack sales were funneled to the CIA-supported Contras.
![The Crack In The Crack In](http://hugoarcier.com/test/wp-content/uploads/2014/07/inthecrack3.jpg)
The United States Department of Justice Office of the Inspector General rejected Webb's claim that there was a 'systematic effort by the CIA to protect the drug trafficking activities of the Contras'. The DOJ/OIG reported: 'We found that Blandon and Meneses were plainly major drug traffickers who enriched themselves at the expense of countless drug users and the communities in which these drug users lived, just like other drug dealers of their magnitude. They also contributed some money to the Contra cause. But we did not find that their activities were the cause of the crack epidemic in Los Angeles, much less in the United States as a whole, or that they were a significant source of support for the Contras.'[20]
Influence on popular culture[edit]
In documentary films[edit]
- High on Crack Street: Lost Lives in Lowell (1995)
- Cocaine Cowboys (2006)
- Crackheads Gone Wild (2006)
- American Drug War: The Last White Hope (2007)
- Freakonomics (2010)
- Planet Rock: The Story of Hip-Hop and the Crack Generation (2011)[21]
- The Seven Five (2014)
- Freeway: Crack in the System (2015)
- 13th (2016)
In documentary serials[edit]
- Drugs, Inc. (2010–present)
Snowfall (produced by FX)
In film[edit]
- Death Wish 4: The Crackdown (1987)
- Colors (1988)
- King of New York (1990)
- New Jack City (1991)
- Boyz n the Hood (1991)
- Deep Cover (1992)
- Menace II Society (1993)
- Above the Rim (1994)
- Fresh (1994)
- Dead Presidents (1995)
- Belly (1998)
- Streetwise (1998)
- Training Day (2001)
- Paid in Full (2002)
- Shottas (2002)
- The Wire (2002)
- Dark Blue (2002)
- Get Rich or Die Tryin' (2005)
- Notorious (2009)
- Life Is Hot in Cracktown (2009)
- Moonlight (2016)
- Snowfall (2017)
- Wu-Tang: An American Saga (2019)
In video games[edit]
- Narc (1988)
- Grand Theft Auto: Vice City (2002)
- Grand Theft Auto: San Andreas (2004)
- Grand Theft Auto: Vice City Stories (2006)
- Scarface: Money. Power. Respect. (2006)
- Scarface: The World Is Yours (2006)
- Hotline Miami (2012)
Research books[edit]
- Sudhir Venkatesh (Indian American sociologist scholar and reporter)
- Freakonomics (2005) – Chapter: 'Why Do Drug Dealers Still Live With Their Moms'
- American Project. The Rise and Fall of a Modern Ghetto, Harvard University Press, 2000
- Off the Books. The Underground Economy of the Urban Poor, Harvard University Press, 2006
- Gang Leader for a Day: A Rogue Sociologist Takes to the Streets, Penguin Press, 2008
- Floating City: A Rogue Sociologist Lost and Found in New York's Underground Economy, Penguin Press, 2013
See also[edit]
References[edit]
- ^ abcdefgh'DEA History Book, 1876–1990' (drug usage & enforcement), US Department of Justice, 1991, USDoJ.gov webpage: DoJ-DEA-History-1985-1990.
- ^ abJim Abrams (July 29, 2010). 'Congress passes bill to reduce disparity in crack, powder cocaine sentencing'. Washington Post.
- ^ abcBurton-Rose (ed.), 1998: pp. 246–247
- ^ abcElsner, Alan (2004). Gates of Injustice: The Crisis in America's Prisons. Saddle River, New Jersey: Financial Times Prentice Hall. p. 20. ISBN0-13-142791-1.
- ^ abUnited States Sentencing Commission (2002). 'Cocaine and Federal Sentencing Policy'(PDF). p. 6. Archived from the original(PDF) on July 15, 2007. Retrieved August 24, 2010.
As a result of the 1986 Act ... penalties for a first-time cocaine trafficking offense: 5 grams or more of crack cocaine = five-year mandatory minimum penalty
- ^ abc'The Fair Sentencing Act corrects a long-time wrong in cocaine cases', The Washington Post, August 3, 2010. Retrieved September 30, 2010.
- ^The word 'street' is used as an adjective meaning 'not involving an official business location or permanent residence' such as: 'sold on the street' or 'street people' in reference to people who live part-time along streets.
- ^Reinarman, C. and Levine, H. (1989). 'The Crack Attack: Politics and Media in America's Latest Drug Scare'. In J. Best (ed.). Images of Issues: Typifying Contemporary Social Problems. New York: Aldine de Gruyter.CS1 maint: uses authors parameter (link) see also Reeves, J. L. and Campbell, R. (1994). Cracked Coverage: Television News, the Anti-Cocaine Crusade, and the Reagan Legacy. Durham, NC: Duke University Press.CS1 maint: uses authors parameter (link)
- ^Beverly Xaviera Watkins, et al. 'Arms against Illness: Crack Cocaine and Drug Policy in the United States.' Health and Human Rights, vol. 2, no. 4, 1998, pp. 42–58.
- ^Fryer, Roland G., et al. 'Measuring Crack Cocaine And Its Impact.' Economic Inquiry, vol. 51, no. 3, July 2013, pp. 1651–1681., doi:10.1111/j.1465-7295.2012.00506.x.
- ^Fryer, Roland (April 2006). 'Measuring Crack Cocaine and Its Impact'(PDF). Harvard University Society of Fellows: 3, 66. Retrieved January 4, 2016.
- ^How bad was Crack Cocaine? The Economics of an Illicit Drug Market. Researched by Steven D. Levitt and Kevin M. Murphy [1].
- ^The World FactbookArchived 2010-12-29 at the Wayback Machine. Cia.gov. Retrieved on 2014-05-12.
- ^ abEvans, William N; Garthwaite, Craig; Moore, Timothy J (2018). 'Guns and Violence: The Enduring Impact of Crack Cocaine Markets on Young Black Males'.Cite journal requires
|journal=
(help) - ^Inciardi, 1994
- ^Durbin's Fair Sentencing Act Passed By House, Sent To President For Signature, durbin.senate.gov. Retrieved September 30, 2010. Archived March 6, 2011, at the Wayback Machine
- ^'Conclusions'(PDF). www.bjs.gov. Retrieved 2019-08-07.
- ^Alexander, Michelle (2012). The New Jim Crow: Mass Incarceration in the Age of Colorblindness. The New Press. ISBN1595586431.
- ^Peter Kornbluh (Jan–Feb 1997). 'Crack, the Contras, and the CIA: The Storm Over 'Dark Alliance''. Columbia Journalism Review. Retrieved February 10, 2008.
- ^https://oig.justice.gov/special/9712/ch12.htm#Chapter%20XII:
- ^Viera, Bené (November 26, 2011). ''Planet Rock' Shows The Power Of Hip-hop'.
Further reading[edit]
- Reinarman, Craig; Levine, Harry G. (1997). Crack In America: Demon Drugs and Social Justice. University of California Press. ISBN978-0520202429.
External links[edit]
- DEA History in Depth (1985–1990), The Crack Epidemic at the DEA
- Oversight hearing of the DEA by the Subcommittee on Crime; July 29, 1999 at The House
- 'How Bad Was Crack Cocaine?' at the Booth School of Business
- 'Cracked up'; analysis of the epidemic at Salon
Retrieved from 'https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Crack_epidemic_in_the_United_States&oldid=922597932'
Look up crack in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. |
Look up craic in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. |
Craic (/kræk/KRAK) or crack is a term for news, gossip, fun, entertainment, and enjoyable conversation, particularly prominent in Ireland.[1][2][3] It is often used with the definite article – the craic[1] – as in the expression 'What's the craic?' (meaning 'How are you?' or 'What's happening?'). The word has an unusual history; the Scots and Englishcrack was borrowed into Irish as craic in the mid-20th century and the Irish spelling was then reborrowed into English.[1] Under either spelling, the term has great cultural currency and significance in Ireland.
History[edit]
The word crack is derived from the Middle Englishcrak, meaning 'loud conversation, bragging talk'.[4] A sense of crack found in Northern England and Scotland meaning 'conversation' or 'news'[5] produces expressions such as 'What's the crack?',[6] meaning 'how are you?' or 'have you any news?' The context involving 'news' and 'gossip' originated in Northern English[7] and Scots.[8] A book on the speech of Northern England published in 1825 equates crack with 'chat, conversation, news'.[9] The term is recorded in Scotland with this sense as far back as the 16th century, with both Robert Fergusson and Robert Burns employing it in the 1770s and 1780s.[10][11][12] The Scottish song 'The Wark o The Weavers', which dates back to the early part of the 19th century, published by David Shaw, who died in 1856, has the opening line 'We're a' met thegither here tae sit an tae crack, Wi oor glesses in oor hands....'[13][14] A collection of folk songs from Cumberland published in 1865 refers to villagers 'enjoying their crack'.[15] 'Crack' is prominent in Cumbrian dialect and everyday Cumbrian usage (including the name of an online local newspaper), with the meaning 'gossip'.[16][17] A glossary of Lancashire terms and phrases published in 1869 lists crack as meaning 'chat',[18] as does a book on the local culture of Edinburgh published in the same year.[19] Glossaries of the dialects of Yorkshire (1878), Cheshire (1886), and Northumberland (1892) equate crack variously with 'conversation', 'gossip', and 'talk'.[20][21][22] These senses of the term entered Hiberno-English from Scots through Ulster at some point in the mid-20th century and were then borrowed into Irish.[1]
The Dictionary of the Scots Language records use of the term in Ulster in 1929.[11] Other early Irish citations from the Irish Independent relate to rural Ulster: from 1950, 'There was much good 'crack'... in the edition of Country Magazine which covered Northern Ireland';[23] or from 1955, 'The Duke had been sitting on top of Kelly's gate watching the crack.'[24] At this time the word was, in Ireland, associated with Ulster dialects: in 1964 linguist John Braidwood said of the term, 'perhaps one of the most seemingly native Ulster words is crack.... In fact the word is of English and Scots origin.'[25] It can frequently be found in the work of 20th century Ulster writers such as Jennifer Johnston (1977): 'I'm sorry if I muscled in on Saturday. Did I spoil your crack?'[26] and Brian Friel (1980): 'You never saw such crack in your life, boys'.[27]
Crack was borrowed into the Irish language with the Gaelicized spellingcraic.[1] It has been used in Irish since at least 1968,[28] and was popularised in the catchphraseBeidh ceol, caint agus craic againn ('We'll have music, chat and craic'), used by Seán Bán Breathnach for his Irish-language chatshow SBB ina Shuí, broadcast on RTÉ from 1976 to 1982.[1][29][30] The Irish spelling was soon reborrowed into English, and is attested in publications from the 1970s and 1980s.[1]Craic has also been used in Scottish Gaelic since at least the early 1990s, though it is unknown if it was borrowed directly from Irish or from English.[1]
At first the craic form was uncommon outside Irish, even in an Irish context. Barney Rush's 1960s song 'The Crack Was Ninety in the Isle of Man' does not use the Irish-language spelling, neither is it used in Christy Moore's 1978 version.[31] However, The Dubliners' 2006 version adopts the Irish spelling.[32] The title of Four to the Bar's 1994 concert album, Craic on the Road, uses the Irish-language spelling as an English-language pun,[33] as does Irish comedian Dara Ó Briain's 2012 show Craic Dealer.[34]
Now, 'craic' is interpreted as a specifically and quintessentially Irish form of fun. The adoption of the Gaelic spelling has reinforced the sense that this is an independent word (homophone) rather than a separate sense of the original word (polysemy). Frank McNally of The Irish Times has said of the word, '[m]ost Irish people now have no idea it's foreign.'[35]
Criticism of spelling[edit]
The craic spelling has attracted criticism when used in English. English-language specialist Diarmaid Ó Muirithe wrote in his Irish Times column 'The Words We Use' that 'the constant Gaelicisation of the good old English-Scottish dialect word crack as craic sets my teeth on edge'.[36] Writing for the Irish Independent, Irish journalist Kevin Myers criticised the craic spelling as 'pseudo-Gaelic' and a 'bogus neologism'.[37] Other linguists have referred to the craic form as 'fake Irish'.[38]
Sociology[edit]
'The craic' has become a part of Irish culture. In a 2001 review of the modern Irish information economy, information sciences professor Eileen M. Trauth called 'craic' an intrinsic part of the culture of sociability that distinguished the Irish workplace from those of other countries.[39] Trauth wrote that even as Ireland transitioned away from an economy and society dominated by agriculture, the traditional importance of atmosphere and the art of conversation – 'craic' – remains, and that the social life is a fundamental part of workers' judgment of quality of life.[40]
Critics have accused the Irish tourism industry and the promoters of Irish theme pubs of marketing 'commodified craic' as a kind of stereotypical Irishness.[41] In his Companion to Irish Traditional Music, Fintan Vallely suggests that use of craic in English is largely an exercise on the part of Irish pubs to make money through the commercialisation of traditional Irish music.[42] Likewise, Donald Clarke in The Irish Times associates the change of spelling to craic with the rebranding of the Irish pub as a tourist attraction during the 1990s.[43]
See also[edit]
- List of English words of Irish origin and Irish words used in English
Notes[edit]
- ^ abcdefgh'Craic'. Oxford English Dictionary. Retrieved 31 May 2012.
craic, n. Fun, amusement; entertaining company or conversation... Freq. with the.
- ^'Crack, n. (I.5.c.)'. Oxford English Dictionary. March 2012. Retrieved 31 May 2012.
- ^Corrigan, Karen P. (2010). Irish English: Northern Ireland. Edinburgh University Press. p. 79. ISBN978-0748634293
- ^Dolan, T. P. (2006). A Dictionary of Hiberno-English. Gill & MacMillan. p. 64. ISBN978-0-7171-4039-8
- ^Oxford English Dictionary 'crack (noun)' sense I.5.a
- ^Else, David (2007). British Language and Culture. Lonely Planet. p. 191. ISBN978-1-86450-286-2
- ^'Crack, Craic' from Hiberno-English dictionaryArchived 21 November 2007 at the Wayback Machine
- ^'Crak' from the Dictionary of the Scots Language
- ^Brockett, John Trotter (1825). A Glossary of North Country Words, In Use. From An Original Manuscript, With Additions. E. Charnley. p. 47
- ^'Dictionary of the Scots Language :: DOST :: Crak n.'
- ^ ab'Dictionary of the Scots Language :: SND :: Crack n.1'.
- ^'Dictionary of the Scots Language :: SND :: Crack v.'
- ^Buchan, Norman (1962). 101 Scottish Songs: The Wee Red Book. Collins.
- ^'Work Weavers'. chivalry.com. Archived from the original on 17 November 2012.
- ^Gilpin, Sidney (1865). The Songs and Ballads of Cumberland : To Which Are Added The Best Poems In the Dialect; With Biographical Sketches, Notes, & Glossary G. Coward. p. 185.
- ^'The Cumbrian Dictionary'. the Cumbrian Dictionary. Retrieved 29 December 2017.
- ^'Cumbrian Crack'. Cumbrian Crack. Retrieved 29 December 2017.
- ^Morris, James P. (1869) A Glossary of the Words and Phrases of Furness (North Lancashire). J. Russell Smith. p. 22
- ^Chambers, Robert (1869). Traditions of Edinburgh by Robert Chambers. W & R. Chambers. p. 171
- ^Castillo, John (1878). Poems in the North Yorkshire Dialect. p. 64
- ^Holland, Robert (1886). A Glossary of Words Used In the County of Chester. Trübner. p. 84
- ^Haldane, Harry (1892). Northumberland Words. K. Paul, Trench, Trübner & Co. p. 192.
- ^Sweeney, Maxwell (2 December 1950). 'Radio review'. Irish Independent. p. 5.
- ^'Francis' (13 August 1955). 'Over the Fields: Life, Day by Day on an Ulster Farm'. Irish Independent. p. 7.
- ^Braidwood, John, “Ulster and Elizabethan English” in Ulster Dialects: An Introductory Symposium (1964) Ulster Folk Museum, p. 99.
- ^Jennifer Johnston: Shadows on Our Skin
- ^Brian Friel: Translations
- ^See, for example, this newspaper advertisement: 'TEACH FURBO: AG OSCAILT ANOCHT: CEOL AGUS CRAIC'. Connacht Sentinel (in Irish). 30 July 1968. p. 5.
- ^Boylan, Philip (23 October 1977). 'The Week Ahead'. Sunday Independent. p. 2.
Friday, RTÉ, 5.30: 'SBB na Shui' [sic] is a new half-hour series with the star of Radio na Gaeltachta, Sean Ban Breathnach, in the chair presenting music, serious discussion and yarns, i.e., ceol, caint agus craic.
- ^Moore, Richard (11 July 1981). 'Television topics'. Meath Chronicle. p. 20.
'Ceoil, caint agus craic' is how Mr. Breathnach introduces the programme.
- ^'lyrics: Crack Was Ninety In The Isle of Man'. Christy Moore, official website. Archived from the original on 17 November 2007. Retrieved 18 October 2008.
- ^Too Late to Stop Now: The Very Best of the Dubliners (Media notes). The Dubliners. DMG TV. 2006.CS1 maint: others (link)
- ^Four to the Bar: Craic on the Road
- ^Richardson, Jay. 'Review - Dara O'Briain: Craic Dealer'. British Comedy Guide. Retrieved 28 February 2014.
- ^McNally, Frank (2005). Xenophobe's Guide to the Irish. London: Oval. p. 19. ISBN1-902825-33-0.
- ^Ó Muirithe, Diarmaid (5 December 1992). 'The Words We Use'. The Irish Times. p. 27.; reprinted in Ó Muirithe, Diarmaid (October 2006). The Words We Use. Dublin: Gill & Macmillan. pp. 154–5. ISBN978-0-7171-4080-0.
- ^'Kevin Myers: The day of indulgence is done – the time of duty has arrived'. Irish Independent. 24 March 2010.
- ^Momma, Haruko, Matto, Michael (2009). A Companion to the History of the English Language. John Wiley & Sons Inc. p. 371. ISBN978-1444302868
- ^Trauth, p. 147.
- ^Trauth, pp. 149–150.
- ^McGovern 2002, p. 91
- ^Vallely, Fintan (1999). Companion to Irish Traditional Music. New York: New York University Press. p. 91. ISBN0-8147-8802-5.
- ^Clarke, Donald (22 June 2013). 'Who will set us free of the bogus Irishness of craic?'. The Irish Times. Retrieved 22 June 2013.
References[edit]
- 'Irish Slang'. Irish Slang.
- Oxford English Dictionary. Oxford University Press.
- The New Comprehensive Dictionary of The English Language (c. 1920). Newnes (London) and Chambers (Edinburgh).
- Dinneen, Patrick S. (1927) Focloir Gaedhilge agus Bearla. Dublin: Irish Texts Society.
- McGovern, Mark (2003). Michael Cronin and Barbara O'Connor (ed.). ''The Cracked Pint Glass of the Servant': the Irish Pub, Irish Identity, and the Tourist Eye'. Irish Tourism: Image, Culture and Identity. Clevedon: Channel View. ISBN1-873150-54-7.
- McGovern, Mark (2002). 'The 'Craic' Market: Irish Theme Bars and the Commodification of Irishness in Contemporary Britain'. Irish Journal of Sociology. 11.2: 77–98.
- Trauth, Eileen M. (2001). The Culture of an Information Economy. Springer. ISBN1-4020-0396-X. Retrieved 6 April 2010.
Retrieved from 'https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Craic&oldid=916131546'